国立嘉义大学97学年度 休闲事业管理研究所博士班招生考试试题 科目：观光休闲游憩文献评论 一、以下段落是出自「Social Impacts of the Sydney Olympics」一文中的结论部分。 请依据该结论部分回答以下问题：（一）请简要说明该结论各段的重点（直接抄写本文， 以零分计算）（15分）；（二）请从「观光社会冲击」的角度评析本文（20分）；（三） 请从方法论的角度评析本文（15分）※请以中文作答。 This paper departs from the recent emphasis in the hallmark event literature on the relationship between the tourist-city and economies of signs and symbols (Zukin 1991; Urry 1995; Waitt 1999). Instead, it contributes to the literature examining the social impact of tourism, particularly host residents ’ appraisal of events. As a longitudinal study examining individual and collective enthusiasm towards Sydney’s 2000 Olympic Games, the paper sought to explore the importance of time, place, demographics, and perceived economic impacts in differentiating responses. Resident reactions in Sydney’ s most socio-economically polarized SLAs (Statistical Local Areas) are examined within social exchange theory. Attitudes towards an event are argued as modifiable across time because the formation of an exchange relationship between the individual and the event is not static but rather constantly negotiated and renegotiated. According to social exchange theory, underpinning these mediated social relations are issues of rationality, satisfaction, reciprocity, and social justice. Increasing feelings of antagonism, expressed in negative reactions, are suggested to occur when the perceived social costs outweigh the benefits of the exchange relationship between the event and the individual. Conducting telephone surveys with the same respondents, of a targeted sample, two years before and then, again, during the 2000 games, provided a unique insight into how residents’ reactions changed. Multi-item attitudinal scaling provided an established methodology for examining the positive or negative attitudes towards Sydney 2000. Faulkner and Tideswell’s (1997) identification of “extrinsic/intrinsic” variables provided a range of a priori constructs regarding the dimensions along which residents responses may be differentiated and tested using inferential statistics. Indirect open questions identified the best, worst, and most memorable aspect attributes of Sydney 2000. Qualitative analysis sought emergent themes, otherwise obscured by closed questions. Qualitative results were employed to provide insights into why enthusiasm levels differed among respondent. Particularly for a longitudinal project, telephone surveys, while cost effective in accessing a large number of respondents in a short time, brought constraints to the data quality. Establishing and maintaining any sense of continued commitment to the project among respondents whose only contact with the researcher was a telephone conversation 第 1 页，共 1 页 proved extremely difficult. There was little sense of personal rewards or ownership amongst respondents. One expression of this was often minimalist responses, often one-word answers. Therefore, the telephone survey seems less satisfactory for eliciting qualitative responses than providing responses to attitudinal scales. Qualitative responses also lack social qualities often generated within focus groups through debate and discussion. Future projects examining social impacts of events may wish to consider these design limitations. Paired non-parametric tests indicate that while in 1998, respondents generally felt positive as they anticipated the games, enthusiasm for the event became even more pronounced during 2000. The “buzz” surrounding the games was expressed particularly in feelings of patriotism, community spirit, and the desire to participate as a volunteer. Unquestionably, a significant psychological reward for many respondents was that the imagined bond that underpins national identity became a lived reality over the 16 days. Nevertheless, the feelings aroused by the Olympic Spirit were not shared equally. The results suggest that it is not the most socio-economically disadvantaged in society who are most enthusiastic about the event, as theorized within the euphoric mass consciousness of the civic boosterism school. No statistical difference in levels of enthusiasm could be found when the sample was differentiated by surrogate measures of class (education, occupation, income). Thus, the validity of the “bread and circus” argument is questionable. Certainly, the results of these surveys suggest it is difficult to sustain arguments that global sporting events are a mechanism that the state can employ either to homogenize public mass consciousness or to legitimize its authority among those most economically disadvantaged in society. Since respondents who were most enthusiastic tended to be either families with dependent children, from non-English speaking backgrounds, or those who perceived the event’s economic benefits as outweighing the costs, these findings have important implications for organizers of future events. First, they confirm that global sporting events can be employed as a mechanism to generate patriotism and a sense of community or belonging, particularly among the young and ethnic minorities. Such psychological outcomes may in part help combat the culture of nihilism that is often said to be undermining both spatial and other identities in global cities everywhere (Lash 1990). Many residents of global cities are argued to be living within a potentially alienating void of self-understanding because of the loss of family, gender, class, ethnic, religious, or other social relations that once acted as a source of self-identification and understanding of the past. As clearly demonstrated by Sydney’s Olympics, global sporting events provide the opportunity for government and city authorities to (re)establish or increase the attachment and identification of people to place. For Sydney, the possibilities presented by these outcomes are particularly relevant in an era marred by increasing levels of youth suicide, homelessness, and drug addiction as well as accusations of racism against those not conforming to an Anglo-Celtic Australian national identity (Chan 1997; HREOC 1991). However, a hallmark event’s relevance in addressing any of these social issues diminishes if such benefits are not sustained after the “circus” has left town. Furthermore, the community spirit that the Olympics inspired may have only revived a 第 2 页，共 2 页 flag-waving form of nationalism rather than claims of a new spirit of Australianness that breaks with a racist legacy. Future research must address these questions. Perceived economic rewards appear crucial in further differentiating appraisals. For some, public expenditure on sports and transport infrastructure may never be justified . In Sydney, this was particularly the case among elderly respondents, who held more negative attitudes. They spoke instead of their preferred state government budget priority on welfare facilities, especially hospitals. For others, these findings also suggest that the level of public expenditure may not generate negative attitudes, particularly among those who display a level of altruism that is, perceiving potential economic gains flowing to the national economy from international tourism and foreign investment. In contrast, it appears that among Sydneysiders, the Olympics’ most bitter critics were respondents who evaluated the public costs as excessive, and spoke only of the disruptions and inconveniences to their personal lives. Such finding suggest that residents’ perceptions of the personal and national economic impacts arising from hosting a global sporting attraction have the potential to undermine public confidence in the event. In Sydney’s case, and despite controversies over the public budget, the perceived rewards arising from place specific attributes helped sustain enthusiasm. These included the widely held perception that this Olympics would counter outdated Australian stereotypes, stimulate future overseas tourism and investment, as well as provide new urban infrastructure. Place specific attributes, including respondents’ perceived evaluations of the host nation’s role, city, and people in the world economy is critical to how a global sporting event is appraised. 二、请阅读下列文章，试说明本研究之(1)研究问题(10分)、(2)研究架构与研究假设(请 绘图) (15分)、(3)「文献回顾」撰写之优、缺点(15分) (4)研究价值/重要性?(10分) ※ 请以中文作答。 Introduction Although service quality in the hotel industry has been examined in a number of studies (Chang, Lee, & Shin, 2002; Tsang & Qu, 2000) there is little comparative research across the Scottish hotel sector on service quality. This despite the fact that the effectiveness of a service business is linked to service quality and, in the hotel sector, service quality not only has a positive and direct effect on competitiveness, but also an indirect positive effect via other variables such as occupancy level and average direct costs (Harrington & Akehurst, 2000). Service quality is critical to the profitability of the sector and to the growth of tourism in Scotland hence this study examines service quality delivery across all sizes of hotels to assess service quality performance. The research has a number of objectives. Firstly, it seeks to determine if there is a relationship between hotel size and the relative importance of service quality determinants. This premise is based on structural variation in the sector, whereby small to medium hotels are often run by enthusiastic amateurs, contrasted with the standardization of the product offering by large branded chains. Ingram (1996) proposes that independent hotels (not identifiable as part of a chain) may view the relationship with customers as ‘transactional’. As the 第 3 页，共 3 页 customer is unlikely to revisit the same destination on a second occasion, there is little incentive to commit to providing quality service. Whereas hotels which are part of a chain will have a vested interest in providing quality as there may be the opportunity for repeat business albeit at a different destination. Secondly, the study investigates the key determinants of service quality from a management perspective and compares these with customers’ experience of delivery of these determinants using TripAdvisor. Thirdly, it evaluates whether the growth of demanding and informed customers, constantly seeking a ‘better deal’ is creating an environment of improvement leading to excellence in all segments of the sector. Fourthly, it seeks to determine whether service quality is producer-driven (in this case VisitScotland) or customer-driven (hotels and their customers). Literature review Service quality in the hotel industry has been examined in a number of studies (Chang et al., 2002; Sargeant &Mohamad, 1999; Tsang & Qu, 2000) and there are a number of models that conceptualise the construct of service quality (e.g. Gronroos, 2001; Bienstock, Mentzer, & Bird, 1997; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988; Garvin, 1987). More recently researchers are concerned with the management of services (Rowley & Richardson, 2000) whilst others focus on why best practice does not work (Lockyer & Scholarios, 2004). Some consider measurement and the use of SERVQUAL in hotels in Northern Ireland (Gabbie & O＇Neill, 1997), whilst Chang et al. (2002) consider its use in Korean hotels. Chu (2002) uses SERVQUAL and the regression models and finds similarity between both approaches. Recent UK research focuses on service management issues (Nolan, 2002) and on the use of technology (Buick, 2003). However, comparative research across the Scottish hotel sector is less common, other than in more generic reports. Thus, this paper focuses on service quality, its determinants and delivery across the sector. There is a lack of consensus about the construct of service quality (Johnston, 1995). The most common approach is that of the disconfirmation paradigm (Robledo, 2001) which asserts that quality can be defined as the gap between customers＇expectations and perceptions (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1990). These researchers proposed a conceptual framework capturing the dimensions utilised by customers when evaluating service quality. The dimensions were then applied to a gap model (SERVQUAL), where customers compared prior expectations of service provision with post experience perceptions (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985; Parasurman et al., 1988). Criticism of the gap model (Cronin & Taylor, 1994) led to the emergence of the derived importance approach which links customer satisfaction to service quality (Bolton & Drew, 1994). Rather than collect ratings of perceived importance associated with service dimensions, regression models identify significant drivers of satisfaction. This precipitated the development of SERVPERF (Cronin & Taylor, 1994) and Normed Quality models (Teas, 1993). In a study of Hong Kong hotels, Chu (2002) suggests that the derived importance model is the more statistically reliable approach. Nevertheless, there is still wide support for both approaches. There is agreement that the problems involved in addressing service quality management are in part a reflection of the intangible, simultaneous, nonstandardised and perishable nature of services (Harris & Harrington, 2000). The characteristics of services 第 4 页，共 4 页 第 5 页，共 5 页 and their relationship to service quality are also difficult to clarify (Soteriou & Chase, 1998). The hotel sector faces manufacturing problems in providing high quality products and service delivery problems in providing high quality services (Keating & Harrington, 2002). The delivery of hotel services involves high contact encounters with significant interaction among customers, staff and facilities (Lovelock & Wright, 1999). Variability is inherent (and in some cases desirable) in service delivery. The challenge for management is to balance the need for routine and standardisation with the need to treat customers as individuals. Excellent companies know that positive employee attitudes promotes stronger customer loyalty, thus companies must attract the best employees with a long-term career focus (Kotler & Keller, 2006). Additionally, in a high contact setting, the physical evidence (tangibles) gives strong clues as to the quality of the service provider by communicating a message to the customer about the establishment before and during the encounter, and strongly influences the evaluation of the overall experience (Lovelock & Wright, 1999). There is consensus that the quality of the service encounter is critical to business success or failure and that service quality is rarely concerned with a single aspect of service but with the whole service package (Berry, Carbone, & Haechel, 2002). Indeed service quality in a tourism context has been viewed mostly as the quality of the opportunities available at a destination and is considered to be related to a tourist’s quality of experience (Crompton & Love, 1995).Underpinning our understanding of service quality is an array of determinants or dimensions which are critical for service management as these are essential to specify, measure, control and improve customer perceived service (Johnston, 1995). There is debate over the number and actual determinants of service quality. Garvin (1987) identifies eight determinants: performance, features, reliability, conformance, durability, serviceability, aesthetics and perceived quality. Parasuraman et al. (1985) identified ten which were subsequently collapsed into five (Parasuraman et al., 1988): tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy. Walker (1990) identifies product reliability, a quality environment and delivery systems that work together with good personal service, whilst Johnston, Sivestro, Fitzgerald, and Voss (1990) signal that there are as many as eighteen determinants. Subsequently, Johnston (1995) argues that researchers have not distinguished between the effect of determinants in the creation of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. -- ncyu_phyedu@ptt,phyedu_99n@ncyu,TFHS_57__326@ofo,abnormal@cgu face book http://www.facebook.com/home.php?ref=home#/friends/?filter=afp&ref=tn my space http://www.myspace.com/468176328 pchome --

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