Chapter 2 The Research Process: How We Find Things Out 封面故事 ‧1984 年美国总统雷根建立国际太空站(ISS, International Space Station) ‧16 国参与，包括敌对的美苏两国 ‧任务：观察地球、制造、研发 ‧问题：如何在太空中相处？ ‧基本健康问题：如何维持运动？ –太空人要不断的运动以防骨质疏松及维持肌肉弹性 ‧有研究显示只要震动骨头就可以达到？ ‧影响睡眠？ The Scientific Method ‧Specify a problem ‧Systematic observation ‧Form a hypothesis ‧Test the hypothesis with data ‧Formulate a theory ‧Test the theory Specifying a problem ‧太空人：what, why, and how? ‧美国女太空人玛莎 ‧Tea time for many cultures: biological rhythms? Observing events ‧Collecting data to establish facts that can be replicated ‧Two kinds: –Directly observable –Inferred ‧Consistent patterns (e.g., face) ‧E.g., Ekman’s studies (皮笑肉不笑) Forming a hypothesis (theory) ‧Testable (measurable) –E.g., sleeping and learning Testing the hypothesis (theory) ‧Operational definition –A definition of a variable that specifies how it is measured or manipulated. ‧Predictions and outcomes –如果理论或假设是正确的话，那麽应该会发生… Levels of Analysis (Sleep apnea) Designing Experiments--Independent Variable The aspect of a situation that is intentionally varied e.g., ISS 无分日夜，睡眠是否影响学习、记忆、问题解决？ ‧Examples –Amount of sleeping allowed –Drug or placebo –Visual or auditory presentation –Temperature of room Designing Experiments--Dependent Variable The aspect of a situation that is measured while the independent variable is changed ‧Examples –Number of words recalled –Speed of response –Number of cigarettes smoked –Electrical activity in the brain Designing Experiments--Effects The difference in the dependent variable that is due to changes in the independent variable (因果关系） ‧Examples –缺乏睡眠则记忆降低 –Visualization improves athletic performance –Practice improves reading speed Control group ‧A group that is treated exactly the same way as the experimental group, except for the one aspect of the situation being studied—the independent variable. ‧The control group holds constant—”controls”—all of the variables in the experimental group except the one of interest. Confounding variable (混淆变项） ‧women during Victorian age ‧Women vs. men? ‧Corsets? (How to design experiment to test this?) Experiments ‧Strength –You can make causal inferences ‧Weakness –Only for independent variables that can be manipulated Quasi-Experiments Like experiments but without random assignment ‧Examples –Males versus females –Depressed versus non-depressed people ‧Harder to make causal inferences from quasi-experiments than from experiments Correlational Research Studies where the relationships between two or more variables are measured but not manipulated ‧Examples –Family income and IQ score –Sense of humor and health –MAO (monoamine oxidase) and risk seeking behavior (e.g., sky diving) –近视与智力 Correlation How closely interrelated two sets of measured variables are 语言是否天生与心理小测验 Correlation Research ‧Strength –Can study variables that cannot be manipulated ‧Weakness –Correlation does not imply causation Descriptive Research ‧Naturalistic observation –Allows one to see patterns in the real world (Motherese: child-directed speech) ‧Case studies –Focus on a single interesting case ‧Surveys –Inexpensive way to determine beliefs ‧Tax for ISS? ??Yes, brain processing??No ‧Limited to people who can report accurately and honestly ‧La Piere’s (1934) study on attitude toward Chinese (serve Chinese people) 上次资料的小整理 ‧85%认为语言是後天学来的 ‧29%人的意识由生理决定，71%超越生理的部分 ‧77%努力睡觉7%call16%坐在床上搧风 Being a Critical Consumer ‧Reliability ‧Validity –Face validity –Content validity –Criterion validity –Construct validity Bias and Expectation ‧Response bias –E.g., some people say yes more than no in some Asian cultures ‧Sampling bias –Presidential election ‧Experimenter expectancy effects –Double-blind design (e.g., clever Hans) ‧Pseudopsychology ESP (extrasensory perception), telepathy: scientific method to decide whether it ispseudopsychology 成功团队与领袖特质 Three levels of analysis ‧Who will be a good leader in ISS? ‧Brain: intelligence level ‧Person: conscientious, extraverted, emotionally stable ‧Group: the more people with these characteristics, the better a team is Statistics: measuring reality ‧Mark Twain: there are three kinds of lies: “lies, damn lies, and statistics” ‧统计改变了世界 –The lady tasting tea ‧小心解读统计资料： –50%离婚率 ‧3/10 couples divorce ‧3/3 remarried couple divorce (6/13 divorce) ‧1/3 3rd married one divorce (7/14) Descriptive Statistics ‧Central tendency –Mean –Median –Mode –Normal distribution Descriptive Statistics ‧Variability –Range –Standard deviation ‧Relative standing –Percentile rank Inferential Statistics Do patterns in measurement reflect true patterns or just chance variation? ‧Statistical significance –A measured relationship is not simply due to chance –Expressed in terms of probability (p) Inferential Statistics ‧Sampling（e.g., better memory for astronauts?) –Population –Sample –Sampling error ‧Meta-analysis: combining results from different studies Lying with Statistics ‧Selective reporting –Only presenting part of the picture Lying with Graphs ‧Shortening the Y axis Lying with Graphs ‧Lengthening the Y axis Lying with Graphs ‧“Tricking” the visual system –Improper use of third dimension –Changing width with height Plotting transformed data Thinking About Research Studies ‧QALMRI method –Question –Alternatives –Logic of the study –Method –Results –Inferences Example using QALMRI ‧Q: Can mental practice change later golf-putting? ‧A: (1) positive vs. negative (2) all positive (3) no effect ‧L: If (1) is correct, then…. ‧M: Pretest vs. posttest ‧R: positive imagery improved performance ‧I: Only appropriate mental practice helps –Always think about alternatives! –Do it yourself! (your hobby) Level of analysis Graph design for the eye and mind ‧什麽时候用长条图？什麽时候用曲线图？ ‧The group ‧The person 美国女太空人玛莎 ‧3D 立体电影「终极太空站」将在台湾的IMAX 电影院放映，片中的主角，也是真 实的女太空人玛莎艾文丝，昨天来台为该片宣传，还坐了摩天轮。看来体健的玛莎 今年54 岁，她在片中是演员兼摄影，耗时３年才拍成此片！ ‧「终极太空站」是首部太空纪实的3D 立体电影，观众可随影片与太空人一同从太 空总署升空，并以17500 英里时速，遨游外太空，相当刺激。IMAX 在台很受欢迎， 先前占了电影「北极特快车」一半的票房，超过台币2400 万。 ‧以飞行为终身兴趣的玛莎艾文丝，从10 岁起就立志当一名太空人，1974 年在太空 总署当工程师，1984 年正式圆梦当太空人，出过了５次任务，待在外太空时间超过 1318 小时。此片的拍摄由25 位真的太空人完成，所以大家都是演员兼摄影师，经 验难得，也很辛苦。 ‧面对外界对太空人生活的好奇，玛莎表示，由於外太空用不到肌肉运动，为了防止 萎缩，他们在太空站每天做２小时运动，在太空舱则每天做20 分钟。另外，从太空 下来地面後，平衡感不好，她也会头晕好几天，跌倒是常有的事。　 （蕃薯藤新闻， 2005/03/02) --

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